Research on user motivation and engagement.
15 peer-reviewed papers, 2 book chapters, and an industry whitepaper, including work presented at CHI and HCI International.
Selected publications
CHI 2022 (Extended Abstracts). Two validated psychometric instruments measuring about 40 distinct sources of digital game enjoyment.
HCI International 2022, HCI-Games. A controlled experiment testing how navigational guidance affects player enjoyment and flow.
AIS Transactions on Human-Computer Interaction 2022. Examines the process of cognition and action that leads people using interactive systems to experience flow. Flow is the psychological state of being "in the zone" while overcoming optimal challenges.
Research approach
Dr. Schaffer's research spans qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods. Card sorting and interviews map the sources of player enjoyment. Surveys and factor analysis build and validate psychometric instruments. Controlled experiments isolate how specific design choices, like progress feedback, navigational guidance, and narrative framing, affect player engagement and flow. Dr. Schaffer works with researchers in independent studies to build custom games with Unity for this research.
Publications
Doctoral dissertation
- Schaffer, O. (2019). A Desire Fulfillment Theory of Digital Game Enjoyment. College of Computing and Digital Media Dissertations, 18.https://via.library.depaul.edu/cdm_etd/18
Journal article
- Schaffer, O. & Fang, X. (2022). The Feedback Loop of Flow: Controlled Experiment Shows Task-Relevant Feedback Increases Flow. AIS Transactions on Human-Computer Interaction, 14(3), 356-389.https://doi.org/10.17705/1thci.00172
Conference publications in proceedings (14 papers)
- Schaffer, O. (2026, in press). Serious Games Evaluation: Guidelines for Controlled Experiments to Demonstrate Effectiveness. In Fang, X. (eds) HCI in Games. HCII 2026. Springer, Cham.
- Avila, J., Schaffer, O. (2025). Investigating the Impact of Progress Feedback and Tutorials with Progressive Disclosure on Player Experience. In Fang, X. (eds) HCI in Games. HCII 2025. LNCS vol 15816. Springer, Cham.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-92578-8_1
- Schaffer, O. (2024). Meaning in Digital Games: A Mixed Methods Investigation. In Fang, X. (eds) HCI in Games. HCII 2024. LNCS vol 14731. Springer, Cham.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-60695-3_18
- Schaffer, O. (2023). Task Significance in Digital Games: Controlled Experiment Shows Impact of Narrative Framing and Upgrades on Player Experience. In Fang, X. (eds) HCI in Games. HCII 2023. LNCS vol 14047. Springer, Cham.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-35979-8_26
- Ambati, U.S.R., Brandt, G., Schaffer, O. (2022). Guidance is Good: Controlled Experiment Shows the Impact of Navigational Guidance on Digital Game Enjoyment and Flow. In Fang, X. (eds) HCI in Games. HCII 2022. LNCS vol 13334. Springer, Cham.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-05637-6_7
- Schaffer, O. (2022). Development and Preliminary Validation of the Enjoyment Questionnaire and the Sources of Enjoyment Questionnaire. In Extended Abstracts of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI EA '22). ACM, Article 422, 1-7.https://doi.org/10.1145/3491101.3519819
- Vaidyabhushana, M., Kirchoff, M., Schaffer, O. (2021). Investigating the Impact of Task Significance on Task Engagement and Enjoyment in Digital Games. In Fang, X. (eds) HCI in Games. HCII 2021. LNCS vol 12789. Springer, Cham.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-77277-2_31
- Schaffer, O. (2020). Guidance Is Good or Avoid Too Much Hand-Holding? Proposing a Controlled Experiment on the Impact of Clear Proximal Goals on Digital Game Enjoyment. In Fang, X. (eds) HCI in Games. HCII 2020. LNCS vol 12211. Springer, Cham.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50164-8_12
- Schaffer, O., Fang, X. (2020). The Impact of Fulfilling a Desire for Idealism on Task Engagement and Enjoyment in Digital Games. In Fang, X. (eds) HCI in Games. HCII 2020. LNCS vol 12211. Springer, Cham.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50164-8_11
- Schaffer, O., Fang, X. (2019). Digital Game Enjoyment: A Literature Review. HCI International 2019, Orlando, FL. In Fang, X. (eds) HCI in Games. HCII 2019. LNCS vol 11595. Springer, Cham.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22602-2_16
- Schaffer, O., Fang, X. (2018). What Makes Games Fun? Card Sort Reveals 34 Sources of Computer Game Enjoyment. AMCIS 2018, New Orleans, LA.http://aisel.aisnet.org/amcis2018/HCI/Presentations/2/
- Schaffer, O., Fang, X. (2017). Sources of Computer Game Enjoyment: Card Sorting to Develop a New Model. HCI International 2017, Vancouver, Canada. LNCS 10272. Springer, Cham.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-58077-7_9
- Schaffer, O., Fang, X. (2016). Impact of Task and Interface Design on Flow. HCI Research in MIS Workshop (SIGHCI) at ICIS, Dublin, Ireland.http://aisel.aisnet.org/sighci2016/7/
- Schaffer, O., Fang, X. (2015). Finding Flow with Games: Does Immediate Progress Feedback Cause Flow? Americas Conference on Information Systems, Puerto Rico.https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.4236.8725
Book chapters
- Schaffer, O. (2026). Engineering Enjoyment: Empirical Research on Designing Fun Interactive Experiences. In Lahiri, A. et al. (eds.) Innovative Solutions: Advanced User Experience Design (2nd ed.). CRC Press.https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003557777
- Schaffer, O. & Fang, X. (2024). Player Experience. In Stephanidis, C. & Salvendy, G. (eds) Human-Computer Interaction: Foundations and Advances, Volume VI. CRC Press.https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003490692-6
Industry whitepaper
- Schaffer, O. (2013). Crafting Fun User Experiences: A Method to Facilitate Flow. Human Factors International White Paper.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272181532_Crafting_Fun_User_Experiences_A_Method_to_Facilitate_Flow
Dr. Schaffer's research has been continuously funded since 2019.